By Dr. Muzammil Ahad Dar

India and Pakistan, despite being two of the most militarized states in South Asia, have historically struggled with delays in defense procurement, limited access to cutting-edge technology, and heavy reliance on foreign military suppliers. Rather than allowing these constraints to paralyze military effectiveness, both nations have embraced a culture of innovation rooted in the concept of jugaad—a Hindi-Urdu term signifying improvisation, workaround, or frugal innovation. This locally-driven and often unofficial form of innovation has enabled their armed forces to retrofit aging platforms, repurpose obsolete technologies, and develop effective military systems through resourceful adaptation.

In India, jugaad is both a tactical necessity and a systemic feature of military maintenance and operational deployment. With many of its Cold War-era platforms still in use, the Indian military has repeatedly demonstrated that ingenuity and low-cost retrofits can keep decades-old systems viable in modern warfare. A striking example of this approach is evident in "Operation Sindoor," where the Indian Army fielded a layered air defense system spanning over 1,500 kilometers, utilizing retrofitted surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems from the Soviet era (Bedi, 2025). The Pechora S-125M, SA-8 Gecko (OSA-AK), and the ZSU-23-4 Shilka—many of which date back to the 1970s—were reengineered with digital fire-control systems, thermal and electro-optical sights, and integrated with communication nodes to enhance battlefield coordination. These upgrades enabled the systems to engage contemporary threats, including drones and low-flying aircraft, with significant accuracy.

The story is similar in the Indian Air Force (IAF), where high-altitude operations over the Siachen Glacier have long depended on light helicopters such as the French-origin Chetak and Cheetah models. These helicopters, initially intended for lower altitudes, now operate reliably at elevations above 14,000 feet due to field-level improvisations. Engineers have reinforced the airframes, upgraded engine cooling systems, and introduced modular instrumentation to enhance navigational accuracy and payload stability in extreme cold and low-oxygen conditions (Bedi, 2025).

Perhaps the most widely discussed instance of jugaad in the Indian military is the life extension of the MiG-21 "Fishbed" jets. These aircraft, first inducted in the 1960s, were upgraded in the 1990s under the "MiG-21 Bis" program with a diverse suite of avionics, radars, and sensors sourced from Russia, Israel, and France. This integration extended the aircraft's service life by nearly three decades. The modifications not only kept the aircraft operational until the early 2020s but also allowed them to remain viable in modern combat scenarios where electronic warfare and BVR (Beyond Visual Range) engagement are standard (Bedi, 2025).

India's most advanced fighter, the Su-30MKI, has also undergone localized modification. Originally acquired from Russia, this multi-role fighter has since been upgraded to carry India’s indigenous Astra Mk I air-to-air missiles and the Indo-Russian BrahMos cruise missile. Such retrofits go beyond simple electronics integration and showcase how jugaad facilitates doctrinal flexibility and indigenous missile adoption without the need for new airframes (Bedi, 2025).

The roots of this innovative impulse can be traced back to the 1999 Kargil conflict. During this operation, IAF engineers adapted Mirage 2000 aircraft to carry 1,000-pound laser-guided bombs produced by India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Despite the lack of pre-existing protocols, these modifications were made in real-time and significantly contributed to India's tactical victories during the war (Bedi, 2025).

Field formations in the Indian Army have also adapted consumer-grade electronics to battlefield conditions. Standard batteries and cables are repurposed to maintain communications; civilian-grade drones have been modified for surveillance and targeting; scrap metal is used to design heating systems in forward posts. One particularly notable innovation is the Arjun Main Battle Tank simulator, built using commercially available PlayStation hardware, gaming joysticks, and graphics cards. This cost-effective substitute for expensive imported simulators significantly reduced training costs while delivering realistic operational scenarios (Bedi, 2025).

India’s naval forces have similarly relied on retrofits to extend the service life of their older platforms. Ships like the Rajput-class destroyers and Sindhughosh-class submarines (Russian Kilo-class) have been fitted with domestically developed sonar systems, fire-control software, and communications gear. These deep refits allow vintage vessels to meet modern strategic demands, including maritime surveillance, anti-submarine warfare, and cruise missile deployment (Bedi, 2025). However, when it comes to U.S.-origin military hardware—such as P-8I aircraft, Apache helicopters, and C-130J transport planes—India faces constraints due to End Use Monitoring Agreements (EUMAs). These agreements prohibit unauthorized modifications, limiting India’s capacity for innovation on these platforms (Bedi, 2025).

Pakistan, facing similar strategic limitations, has also cultivated a robust jugaad culture within its military-industrial complex. Its fleet of French Mirage III and V fighter jets—long considered outdated by Western standards—has been retrofitted under Project ROSE (Retrofit of Strike Element). This program incorporated Chinese and locally developed avionics, including night-flying equipment and electro-optical sensors. As a result, the Mirages remain a central element of Pakistan’s offensive air strategy (Bedi, 2025).

Furthermore, Pakistan has effectively integrated multiple surveillance and electronic warfare systems into its air defense doctrine. The Saab 2000-based Erieye AEW&C aircraft have been enhanced with Czech-origin VERA-E passive surveillance systems and Chinese CHL-906 electronic warfare gear. This hybrid model of acquisition and retrofitting creates a multi-layered surveillance architecture that reportedly contributed to Pakistan’s air operations during the 2019 border skirmishes with India (Bedi, 2025).

The Pakistan Air Force’s JF-17 Thunder program is another example of modular adaptation. Jointly developed with China, the aircraft incorporates a Chinese airframe, a Russian RD-93 engine, and a mix of avionics from various sources. This composite platform offers Pakistan a low-cost, flexible, and exportable combat aircraft tailored to regional needs (Bedi, 2025).

Similar to India's army, Pakistan’s ground forces routinely upgrade M113 armored personnel carriers with reactive armor, modern communications suites, and stabilized weapon mounts. Aging tanks like the Type-59 and T-55 have been given new fire-control systems, improved armor, and upgraded turrets. On the naval side, Pakistan has extended the service life of several surface vessels and submarines through retrofits with Chinese and Turkish electronics and missile systems (Bedi, 2025).

Though both nations engage in jugaad, there are nuanced differences. India’s innovations have often emerged through collaborations between military units, the DRDO, and public sector undertakings. The emphasis has been on adapting existing Soviet and Indian platforms to meet changing operational needs. Pakistan’s approach, by contrast, has involved greater integration of Chinese technology and modular assemblies, reflecting its long-standing defense partnership with Beijing.

The strategic significance of jugaad lies in its ability to generate capability without dependence on global defense supply chains. In both India and Pakistan, jugaad enables a degree of self-reliance and adaptive resilience, especially under conditions of embargo, war, or crisis. It facilitates deterrence by enhancing readiness and reducing downtime. Furthermore, jugaad fosters innovation among field personnel, developing a culture where necessity truly becomes the mother of invention.

However, this culture is not without risks. Improvisation often circumvents standardized testing, creating concerns about system reliability and interoperability. Modifications, especially those made without proper documentation or certification, may fail under combat conditions. There is also a broader legal and diplomatic concern when modifications are applied to foreign-origin systems, potentially violating license agreements or voiding warranties.

Yet, despite these constraints, jugaad remains a defining feature of South Asian military practice. It represents an alternative model of innovation—less about bleeding-edge technology and more about functional improvisation. In regions where defense modernization is constrained by geopolitics and limited capital, jugaad is not merely a stopgap; it is a form of resistance, adaptability, and ingenuity. As both India and Pakistan continue to modernize their forces, jugaad will likely remain a parallel stream of innovation—silent, unofficial, but strategically indispensable.

Dr. Muzammil Ahad Dar is Assistant Professor of Political Science at Kumaraguru College for Liberal Arts and Science

References

Bedi, R. (2025, June 11). The wonders of jugaad in the Indian and Pakistani militaries. The Wire. https://thewire.in/security/the-wonders-of-jugaad-in-the-indian-and-pakistani-militaries